tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7648058660580663592024-02-07T19:53:14.596-08:00TOXINS PRESENT IN THE BRAZILIAN FAUNA AND FLORA WITH POTENTIAL MEDICAL IMPORTANCEThis website has been developed in order to display toxins from brazilian fauna and flora with possible medicinal properties and applications. Toxins were chosen based on their relevance to public health and their use by indigenous populations.Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-29938410014508927982012-04-24T17:42:00.001-07:002012-04-24T17:42:59.742-07:00“<i><b>This land, Lord, it seems to me, from the southernmost point within my sight, to the northernmost point that can be seen from this port, is so vast that there must be 20 or 25 leagues of coast. Along the sea, in some parts there are great barriers, some red and others white, and the land above with plains covered in large trees. From one end to the other, it is all beaches..very level and most pleasant. From the sea, the remote and arid interior seems very large; as far as the eye can see there is tree-covered land–land which seems to us to be very extensive.” - Pero Vaz de Caminha</b></i>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-84154112070067941522012-04-24T13:06:00.003-07:002012-04-25T13:14:14.016-07:00The Brazilian Wandering Spider<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<b>Genus <i>Phoneutria
</i></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiajlbhBouWq0yvukb5N2XPBhi-pe1Y_G37mGcu9k7k8iTVF-3xKx8iKJrU24ZZToqdDwaIgdcEFb4ROdH0kZX4ol8PtqjVL5kIR-30eqcYirJxhtBPVz1IvyAYPjRhkChkE0HRhTgkIgY/s1600/ARMADEIRA+2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="218" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiajlbhBouWq0yvukb5N2XPBhi-pe1Y_G37mGcu9k7k8iTVF-3xKx8iKJrU24ZZToqdDwaIgdcEFb4ROdH0kZX4ol8PtqjVL5kIR-30eqcYirJxhtBPVz1IvyAYPjRhkChkE0HRhTgkIgY/s320/ARMADEIRA+2.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Phoneutria negriventer</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Spiders belonging to the genus
<i>Phoneutria</i> are common to the biodiversity of Brazil. Their venoms
contain a wide variety of proteins and peptides including
neurotoxins, which act on ion channels and chemical receptors of the
neuro-muscular systems in mammals and insects. Their venoms have been
described as particularly useful for future development and discovery
of biologically active molecules that have potential applications in
medicine and agriculture.
</div>
</div>
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The two most toxic peptides are
found in the venom of <i>P. nigriventer</i>. These peptides are referred to
as Tx2-6 and Tx2-5, both of which cause death within 2-5 minutes in
mice injected with this spider venom (RICHARDSON et al., 2006).
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<b><br /></b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>The Brazilian Wandering Spider</b></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj36ygOYu0NML2hzKMGYn-I2NjQMYJa5aloMb0_-f9Vw1Tr-ABbvrXtApjIe77XGcTqq2vO0trIy7KGc2mq0Fr3ZVzGbO-Z3l0o8yA5blcBw5ufjz9moVjY7wCYzKN4Pbin7HgGAVGEH44/s1600/ARMADEIRA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj36ygOYu0NML2hzKMGYn-I2NjQMYJa5aloMb0_-f9Vw1Tr-ABbvrXtApjIe77XGcTqq2vO0trIy7KGc2mq0Fr3ZVzGbO-Z3l0o8yA5blcBw5ufjz9moVjY7wCYzKN4Pbin7HgGAVGEH44/s1600/ARMADEIRA.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Phoneutria negriventer</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The Brazilian wandering Spider, also
known as the Banana spider is considered to be very dangerous and
deadly. One bite from this particular spider can be fatal. The toxin
carried by this spider is a very potent neurotoxin called PhTx3. This
neurotoxin is attributed to loss of muscle control and breathing
problems. After exposure to the venom, people usually experience
intense pain and inflammation around the injection site (RICHARDSON et al., 2006). As discussed in class, venom production is very costly
and the Brazilian wandering spider often engages in dry bites as a
warning to predators.</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In 2007, an article appeared in
online at Lifescience.com that discussed a potential benefit for the
use of Brazilian wandering spider venom. As described in the article
a Brazilian spider delivers more than a painful bite because its
venom is able to stimulate an hours-long erection. The erection is a
side effect seen in men, that is a result of an increase in blood
pressure due to exposure to their toxic venom.<br />
<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQvRP6LsFMwJ1vLyz3SneiEh0p5A-4RzSfDPLzTDX2PsZ7qXLXeUXjEYTL610LuVkxCuSOZoFGPp2zzxCC90-yjQaagKapZ6s4Hhgt02YpkIPfCarhUPDa_niZHNV9IKt8Lwj5nI_VRgs/s1600/BANANA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQvRP6LsFMwJ1vLyz3SneiEh0p5A-4RzSfDPLzTDX2PsZ7qXLXeUXjEYTL610LuVkxCuSOZoFGPp2zzxCC90-yjQaagKapZ6s4Hhgt02YpkIPfCarhUPDa_niZHNV9IKt8Lwj5nI_VRgs/s320/BANANA.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
Research conducted at John Hopkins
University found that about 18 million men in the U.S. suffer from
erectile dysfunction and that 1 in 3 men do not respond to Viagra or
other ED medication (BRYNER, 2007). The active compound in the spider
venom that stimulates erection was experimentally determined using
male rats. This particular compound turned out to be a peptide named
Tx2-6. The mechanism of action of the toxin Tx2-6 is different than
traditional ED medications because it affects an earlier step in the
erection process by increasing the amount of nitric oxide, a chemical
that is released due to sensations of sexual arousal (BRYNER, 2007).</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Scientists are currently working
on creating a synthetic version of the toxin Tx2-6 found in the
Brazilian Wandering Spider and finding ways to combine it with active
components in common ED medication like Viagra to get a drug that
would be more efficient in patients that don’t respond well to
Viagra (BRYNER, 2007).<br />
<br /></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/SMiPJD0yrKM?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<br />
<br />
<b>References:</b><br />
Bryner, J. (2007). Natural Viagra: Spider bite causes erection. Retrieved from: www.livescience.com/4429-natural-viagra-spider-bite-erection.html.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Richardson, M., Pimenta, A.M.C.,
Bemquerer, M.P., Santoro, M.M., et al. 2006. Comparison of the
partial proteomes of the venoms of Brazilian spiders of the genus
Phoneutria. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Vol:142
(1) 173-187.</div>
</div>
<br />Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-47323985201900935272012-04-24T12:30:00.002-07:002012-04-24T16:37:35.755-07:00Africanized Honey Bees<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKFL7RgjRyLB0P_wxOXrUmP-Y1fz2qt777hwqv0j-Y_saOPdGiPOUzVj6EIHlO7fcfRFxyVvISmSJ-cVnlqSXEiKOmQrYXeJa-QKpDuBgRyZW-F1u_yZo7yOG0QPmDTsCGod4mDMXGNV8/s1600/bees.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKFL7RgjRyLB0P_wxOXrUmP-Y1fz2qt777hwqv0j-Y_saOPdGiPOUzVj6EIHlO7fcfRFxyVvISmSJ-cVnlqSXEiKOmQrYXeJa-QKpDuBgRyZW-F1u_yZo7yOG0QPmDTsCGod4mDMXGNV8/s1600/bees.jpg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<b>Africanized Honey Bees: <em>Apis
mellifera scutellata</em></b></div>
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In 1956, scientists in Brazil were
looking for a way to increase honey production made by the local
bees. As part of their experiment they imported honeybees from Africa
and to their surprise some of the imported bees managed to escape and
began mating with the local honeybees. The result was a hybrid cross
between two species of bees, which were named the “Africanized
honeybee”. These hybrid bees proved to be aggressive and dangerous.
They were soon referred to as “Killer bees” because their stings
had the ability to kill humans. Since 1990 scientists estimate that
there have been at least 17 deaths in the United as a result of a
Killer bee envenomation (KOLECKI, 1998). In another study involving a
small group of patients the cause of death following honeybee stings
was respiratory failure.
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<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEjdISWCJaF509VKSaXAo9_03LhxeEQpsiKT918by6VLgQEKmKI47uV6zbaBPnw50Lj09UxjCl4pmzJc8KKStnjn5sdeEauSNu-kHZEQpMu0MwStKPvhS7Q_npUECXjqARP5hA3w1YDSI/s1600/apresentac%CC%A7a%CC%83o+inicial-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEjdISWCJaF509VKSaXAo9_03LhxeEQpsiKT918by6VLgQEKmKI47uV6zbaBPnw50Lj09UxjCl4pmzJc8KKStnjn5sdeEauSNu-kHZEQpMu0MwStKPvhS7Q_npUECXjqARP5hA3w1YDSI/s1600/apresentac%CC%A7a%CC%83o+inicial-1.jpg" /></a>Clinical studies of <i>Apis Mellifera</i>
have shown that many who encounter their potential fatal sting do not
survive. The prevalence of this insect is rather high in Brazil as
well as many other countries including the U.S. and due to their
aggressive nature they are a concern for public safety. There are
clinical cases of patients who have survived numerous Africanized bee
stings, however they did suffer physically. Clinical manifestation of
the bee toxin was characterized by diffuse and wide spread edema, a
burning sensation in the skin, weakness, dizziness, and hypotension.
Acute renal failure also developed and was attributed to hypotension,
intravascular hemolysis and myoglobinuria due to the direct toxic
effect of the massive quantity of injected venom (KOLECKI, 1998).</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1xlYdrZpR8ScObe03u0kzM1YgPaWevl8lxmfJmpRabB_DhniICmtVmCJZeOg-_1mHKws267MQzQC3s0f9-lqLmkxHo36oTiKAhSlJ9UZcfBOQfrtIRKg7iKLdMbf9-DGHiTlPvcY_csY/s1600/sting.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1xlYdrZpR8ScObe03u0kzM1YgPaWevl8lxmfJmpRabB_DhniICmtVmCJZeOg-_1mHKws267MQzQC3s0f9-lqLmkxHo36oTiKAhSlJ9UZcfBOQfrtIRKg7iKLdMbf9-DGHiTlPvcY_csY/s320/sting.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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It has also been observed that
multiple Africanized bee stings can cause death in adults. Case
reports of people who had been stung by the Africanized bee indicated
that even healthy adolescents were likely to experience muscular
weakness, diffuse edema, general paresthesia, nausea, vomiting and
loss of consciousness (DAHER et al., 2003).
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in; text-align: justify;">
Clinical research has suggested
that systematic toxic effects of bee venom are generally seen on
patients who have at least 50 stings. The potentially lethal number
of stings is estimated to be about 500, with death occurring due to a
direct systemic effect of the venom due to a large amount of toxin
flowing through the body (KOLECKI, 1998).
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwifu3Q-fG3qBWAewma8iMtpCNUZ-ZSO5hyphenhyphenhUrRBmDHyImto097_N1PsjgxaINrt9ga4CDu3DQjtT_rWg0Lxbp5dqZzEWoBaCrwmjf6toQJRuoNKZe4tqEK4iUaDmSouRpj0Y4YmzwVbw/s1600/pic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwifu3Q-fG3qBWAewma8iMtpCNUZ-ZSO5hyphenhyphenhUrRBmDHyImto097_N1PsjgxaINrt9ga4CDu3DQjtT_rWg0Lxbp5dqZzEWoBaCrwmjf6toQJRuoNKZe4tqEK4iUaDmSouRpj0Y4YmzwVbw/s1600/pic.jpg" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The bee's venom contains toxins such as <b>mellitin, </b>which if the main component and has hemolytic and vasoactive properties, it is analogs to the C9 component of the complement cascade and it is able to metabolize the arachidonic acid; <b>phospholipase A2, </b>it is the most active component within the animals venoms, it has myotoxic action; <b>biogenics amines, </b>it is involved with signalization of systems such as immune and nervous; <b>hyaluronidase</b>, degrades the extracellular matrix. </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Yes0p3mnPj5VRvzwK9V_siTdWY1_DG9H7OeADlCjbJ1IVZAxXNhXGoMXrYc8ChIvffAzOrA8TsCwrL7czYezMz2OegYQyc2rz6TqyWVZZ8YjnoZxuYM43MQF5R-TAHNKShsAH_ELGiY/s1600/sistemic.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="199" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Yes0p3mnPj5VRvzwK9V_siTdWY1_DG9H7OeADlCjbJ1IVZAxXNhXGoMXrYc8ChIvffAzOrA8TsCwrL7czYezMz2OegYQyc2rz6TqyWVZZ8YjnoZxuYM43MQF5R-TAHNKShsAH_ELGiY/s320/sistemic.png" style="cursor: move;" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in; text-align: justify;">
It also contains <b>apamin</b>, a
neurotoxin which could contribute to the lysis of red blood cells and
leukocytes (ERLER et al., 2011). The Africanized bee stings are
particularly interesting because even after the stinger is detached
from the insect body it continues to inject venom because the long
sting shaft remains inside the skin. This poses concern for the
complete and effective removal of the stinger because it is possible
for a portion of the stinger to remain inside the body and continue
to release venom. Relative mortality rates from insect bites and
stings have been estimated from several case studies and it is
assumed to be between 15-25% (DAHER et al., 2003). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>References:</b><br />
Daher, E., Silvia-Junior, G.,
Bezerra, G., et al. 2003. Case Report: Acute Renal Failure After
Massive Honeybee Stings. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Säo Paul. Vol:45 (1)
45-50.<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<br />
Erler, S., Lommatzsch, S., and
Lattorff, H.M.G. 2012. Comparative analysis of detection limits and
specificity of molecular diagnostic markers for three pathogens in
the key pollinators Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris.
Parasitology Research. Vol:110 (1) 1403-1410.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
Kolecki, Paul. 1999. Delayed Toxic
Reaction Following Massive Bee Envenomination. Annals of Emergency
Medicine. Vol:33 (1) 114-118.</div>
<br /></div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-64741231087006150582012-04-24T12:05:00.001-07:002012-04-25T19:14:57.016-07:00Ayahuasca<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9-D-NR2Avsg6T0xUVkQiX6EvXVnvjTAk-rAWiS-NgQNAuw-QrRXMdwBnfnkkqv-mmVxNBnwToLYB_qKYgAzAba455-0TnTWzNxv6Dj4JLZpdJvUE7tA46KKTo_spg-bcSVVVaI3GelTo/s1600/Ayahuasca_Kit_1_504.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9-D-NR2Avsg6T0xUVkQiX6EvXVnvjTAk-rAWiS-NgQNAuw-QrRXMdwBnfnkkqv-mmVxNBnwToLYB_qKYgAzAba455-0TnTWzNxv6Dj4JLZpdJvUE7tA46KKTo_spg-bcSVVVaI3GelTo/s320/Ayahuasca_Kit_1_504.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ayahuasca
(</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Banisteriopsis
caapi and Psychotria viridis</i></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">) </span></span></b></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ayahuasca
is a tea prepared from the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the leaves
of </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>Psychotria
viridis. Psychotria viridis</i></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
leaves contain Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). DMT depending on the consumed dose
results can range from short-lived milder psychedelic states to
powerful immersive experiences. <i>Banisteriopsis caapi</i> contains three
main compounds that have physical effects: harmine, harmaline and
tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are Monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOI) they specifically inhibit MAO-A (</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">CALLAWAY
J.C. et al, 1999)</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">.
The presence of these compounds in the tea prevents the metabolism of
DMT in the stomach and intestines allowing it to reach the blood
stream and the brain. Tetrahydroharmine is a serotonin uptake
inhibitor (</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">CALLAWAY
J.C. et al, 1999)</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">.
</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqGwdNIqdqohKM4OJwbZMFqH2uCEZEnIw-_apR0O1k6aP3j-DSNaiZsHWwGcu-F9nu2mPl_tyS5SSpscr5P1oH-NTCVun4b91Dvg3_sxh0jJnGMD2kWyx3F0toakpDLmse9TE86IIVtAA/s1600/ayuhasca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqGwdNIqdqohKM4OJwbZMFqH2uCEZEnIw-_apR0O1k6aP3j-DSNaiZsHWwGcu-F9nu2mPl_tyS5SSpscr5P1oH-NTCVun4b91Dvg3_sxh0jJnGMD2kWyx3F0toakpDLmse9TE86IIVtAA/s320/ayuhasca.jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ayahuasca
largely used for religious purposes but also has traditional
medicinal applications. The ritual is a spiritual it is intended as a
purification. Ayahuasca translates to “spirit vine” in Quechua.
The harsh diarrhea and vomiting associated with is used to purge the
body of parasitic worms. Harmala alkaloids themselves have been shown
to be anthelmintic</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
(ANDRITZKY, 1989)</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwGUjzLOtEe3EIlV3_ZZZ-R2nF-a24lpmHu3MSjlmx_0LFcCof1aMwuY3oKP9pO2rsU9uBpkHKfrH4-q0Ev_Qq9ZLehaMgJzUBynh83ihJR_EAzqjRcNbSILAFvzxFt2Sju74qyF_3NFM/s1600/9+(2).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwGUjzLOtEe3EIlV3_ZZZ-R2nF-a24lpmHu3MSjlmx_0LFcCof1aMwuY3oKP9pO2rsU9uBpkHKfrH4-q0Ev_Qq9ZLehaMgJzUBynh83ihJR_EAzqjRcNbSILAFvzxFt2Sju74qyF_3NFM/s320/9+(2).jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">It
has been used in Amazonia for centuries. Christian missionaries
encountered its use in the 16th century. They equated its use with
Satan. The active compounds of Banisteriopsis caapi were isolated in
the 20th Century. A number of modern religious movenments in Brazil
extensively use Ayahuasca. Santo Daime, established in the 1930s
integrates ayahuasca with Christianity. Since the 1990’s the
movement has followers around the world. </span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<object class="BLOGGER-youtube-video" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0" data-thumbnail-src="http://3.gvt0.com/vi/K9_NHLm33Uc/0.jpg" height="266" width="320"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/K9_NHLm33Uc&fs=1&source=uds" />
<param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" />
<embed width="320" height="266" src="http://www.youtube.com/v/K9_NHLm33Uc&fs=1&source=uds" type="application/x-shockwave-flash"></embed></object></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Legally
DMT is still listed as a schedule one substance. Due to their usage
of ayahuasca as a sacrament and the spread of the religion, Santo
Daime has found itself the center of Court battles and legal
wrangling in various countries. In March 2009, there was court ruling
that the utilization of ayahuasca for religious ceremonies was legal
in the United States </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">(ANDRITZKY, 1989)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>References: </b></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Callaway, J.C., et al. (1999). "Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in
healthy humans". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65 (3): 243–256.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: justify;">Andritzky</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">,
W. (1989). "Sociopsychotherapeutic functions of ayahuasca
healing in Amazonia". J Psychoactive Drugs 21 (1): 77–89.</span></div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-27588736960795596052012-04-24T09:42:00.001-07:002012-04-24T16:39:14.829-07:00Andiroba<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5p7-6uCUxS42XUCE8ZkXqeRUaDgoxR5-jk1Byo7v8Kn2-3k2G-O1ey-4B1nn8kXb4RqIfy1g1MxpAf3VyOxzpf1sggvghXQ4ch49TmG6pWc4K99cEvFTzMNkgpGqn8KAeEv2ACFnRbcA/s1600/andiroba.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5p7-6uCUxS42XUCE8ZkXqeRUaDgoxR5-jk1Byo7v8Kn2-3k2G-O1ey-4B1nn8kXb4RqIfy1g1MxpAf3VyOxzpf1sggvghXQ4ch49TmG6pWc4K99cEvFTzMNkgpGqn8KAeEv2ACFnRbcA/s320/andiroba.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Andiroba
(<i>Carapa guianensis</i>) </b></span></span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Andiroba
(<i>Carapa guianensis</i>) is a large tree in the mahogany family
that grows up to 40m. The tree is common in the rich soils of the
Amazon Basin and surrounding area. The tree has a soft, durable wood
that is sought for lumber. The tree produce a four corned nut about
7-10cm across. The nut contains kernels from which oil is harvested. </span></span>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Andiroba
oil has been harvested and utilized by indigenous people of the region
for centuries. It has been used to treat skin parasites like ticks.
The oil is applied to injuries, bites, rashes, boils. Brewed into a
tea it is also used to treat fevers, worms, and ulcers. </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The oil is
also burnt in lamps and is reported to repel mosquitoes. Andiroba is
a potent insect repellent (MIOT et al, 2004). However, currently
used throughout Brazil for many things. It is commercially
manufactured into anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and insecticidal
products </span></span>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOCEV4ryWlcComm-vza4lZHnnAXO9M5GKDAkZWVvdFoeMor7OwYkKkoIDA0_bhypcIZlvdIl6TUj-EAxxdJHKxizphDKfJdGPRAgBoQ1sseJ1uTtHeyZkQeCkVyw1yT0Jjo_4GwKn8A1Y/s1600/amazonlights-garden-candle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOCEV4ryWlcComm-vza4lZHnnAXO9M5GKDAkZWVvdFoeMor7OwYkKkoIDA0_bhypcIZlvdIl6TUj-EAxxdJHKxizphDKfJdGPRAgBoQ1sseJ1uTtHeyZkQeCkVyw1yT0Jjo_4GwKn8A1Y/s320/amazonlights-garden-candle.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Andiroba
oil is primarily composed of fatty acids including oleic, palmitic,
stearic, and linoleic acids. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid
required for many biological pathways. However, it cannot be
synthesized by animals it is obtained through diet only. It serves in
cell signaling and is positively linked to skin health.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Andiroba
bark, oil, and leaves also contains limonoids, including a novel type
andirobin (ROY et al, 2006). Limonoids are currently being
investigated for a variety of therapeutic effects such as antiviral,
antifungal, antibacterial, antibacterial, antimalarial and
chemotherapy. Some are also utilized as an insecticide.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b>References: </b></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, serif;">Miot,
H. A., et al. “Comparative study of the topical effectiveness of
the Andiroba oil (</span><i style="font-family: Times, serif;">Carapa guianensis</i><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">) and DEET 50% as
repellent for Aedes sp.” Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo. 2004
Sep-Oct; 46(5): 253-6.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Roy,
A., et al. “Limonoids: overview of significant bioactive
triterpenes distributed in plants kingdom. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006;
29(2): 191-201.</span></div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-27563144687968684302012-04-24T09:17:00.001-07:002012-04-25T13:19:18.220-07:00Yellow Scorpion<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.14in;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBASf_iLnDiVRFqBKuVZv_neoz47aPFoxZd3dQe_TDkCLzoSlx7sqYC7zGlmAga3dIeFlCqLSR-hUNXqkfja-tILnMGZkIwbdb4JdjvSSx8zs8bzkcf9Ko00wS3VlSba2VUZDxVWFnZTo/s1600/TITYUS+BAHIENSE.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBASf_iLnDiVRFqBKuVZv_neoz47aPFoxZd3dQe_TDkCLzoSlx7sqYC7zGlmAga3dIeFlCqLSR-hUNXqkfja-tILnMGZkIwbdb4JdjvSSx8zs8bzkcf9Ko00wS3VlSba2VUZDxVWFnZTo/s320/TITYUS+BAHIENSE.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Tityus bahiensis</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b>Yellow Scorpion (<i>Tityus sp</i>)</b></div>
<div style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Scorpion stings are an important cause
for concern in Brazil because they occur frequently and also have the
ability to induce severe and often fatal reactions to their venom.
Research conducted in a Brazilian clinical study included data from 4
patients who were suffering from scorpion stings and who had all
developed heart failure and pulmonary edema.<br />
<br />
Three of the 4 patients
died within 24 hours of being stung. The autopsy results of some of
the patients indicated that they also suffered from vascular
congestion probably due to circulatory failure as a result of Yellow
Scorpion venom being present in the blood which physician’s believe
could have triggered death (CUPO et al., 1994).</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br />
One of the case studies examined a
young boy who was stung by the Yellow Scorpion because he experienced
intense pain with immediate and frequent vomiting occurring right
after the sting. The initial evaluation of this patient revealed that
he was severely dehydrated and was experiencing cardiac arrhythmias.
Interestingly enough all of the patients in this clinical case report
study suffered from cerebral edema and dilation of their cardiac
chambers, all of which had visible blood clots in their heart (CUPO
et al., 1994).</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY_b-oYUtmSSlADFcNBreApQ0wsiDLe2U38_SLkErsQVQ_xGL_1LospmFfrFwsJxlGiUhUnat2QTILjxIoCKa-yfjFdW8zNeKrgx5HetMQl92T9h4hWa0xLveeTtyUY2xblvPNU_1Pknk/s1600/TITYUS+SERRATUS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: justify;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY_b-oYUtmSSlADFcNBreApQ0wsiDLe2U38_SLkErsQVQ_xGL_1LospmFfrFwsJxlGiUhUnat2QTILjxIoCKa-yfjFdW8zNeKrgx5HetMQl92T9h4hWa0xLveeTtyUY2xblvPNU_1Pknk/s200/TITYUS+SERRATUS.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Tityus serrulatus</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Additional studies were conducted in a
laboratory setting using mice to test the toxic effects of scorpion
venom. In this experiment the mice who were exposed to the venom
indicated that Yellow Scorpion stings have the ability to induce
seizures. Mice that were injected with Yellow Scorpion toxin were
also subject to massive pyramidal neuronal loss in the dorsal
hippocampal region of the brain (SANDOVAL and LEBRUN, 2003).</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
researchers that examined these effects were interested in the
possible connection to a condition in Humans known as Hippocampal
sclerosis. Hippocampal sclerosis is described as a common type of
neuropathological damage resulting from neuron cell loss primarily
occurring in the hippocampus. A very long-standing question is
whether hippocampal sclerosis is the consequence of repeated
seizures, or whether it plays a role in the development of the
epilepsy (JEFFERYS, 1999). The researchers who conducted the mice
experiment have suggested the possible benefits of incorporating the
Yellow Scorpion toxin in attempt to design a new effective
antiepileptic drug (SANDOVAL and LEBRUN, 2003).</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Between the most important and dangerous species
occurring in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region>
are <i>Tityus serrulatus, Tityus bahiensis, Tityus stigmurus </i>and<i> Tityus
cambridgei.</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">The venom of these
animals doesn't produce necrosis or hemorrhagic effect but it affects the
permeability of neurons and muscles. Some of the most important toxins are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Alpha toxin:</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> decrease or block
the inactivation of Na+ channels voltage-dependent resulting in constant
depolarization of the cells.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Beta toxin: </span></b><span lang="EN-US">enable or facilitates
the activation of Na+ channels voltage-dependent, causing the cell
depolarization.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Blockers of K
channels: </span></b><span lang="EN-US">block the K channels. It causes a retardation on cell polarization return
for difficult the ion flux trough this channels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Blockers of Cl
channels: </span></b><span lang="EN-US">block the Cl channels. It prevents the cell polarization.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/8CwnqoG4kQo?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Tityus serrulatus</i> attacking a
cockroach during a lab experiment</span></div>
</div>
<div style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b>References:</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
Becerril, B. et al, "Toxins and
genes isolated from scorpions of the genus <i>Tityus</i>",
Toxicon (1997) 35:821-835.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
Cupo, P., Jurca, M., Azevedo-Marques,
M., et al. 1994. Severe Scorpion Envenomation in Brazil: Clinical,
Laboratory and Anatomopathological aspects. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Säo
Paul. Vol:36 (1) 67-76.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
Jefferys, John G. R. 1999. Editorial:
Hippocampal sclerosis and temporal lobe epilepsy: cause or
consequence? Brain: Oxford University Press. Vol:122 (1) 1007-1008.<br />
<br />
Sandoval, M., and Lebrun, I. (2003) TsTx Toxin isolated from <i>Tityus serrulatus</i> sacorpion venom induces spontaneous recurrent seizures and mossy fiber sprouting. Epilepsia Vol:42 (7) 904-911.</div>
</div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-49799726246960417982012-04-23T15:49:00.002-07:002012-04-25T19:17:58.528-07:00Curare<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<b>Curare</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzREqaTaxCpeXwVNWUBlpyW78Nl1gGE920PYbGx5CIrVLB6nEcN4sWDOCOc7Q9a7VT_Vfie7jmZixPG-ovaLfReAeu5WjzQAce4czV8WvcIv-weM8C-TyMEWtFi79-q-v7YyOd7VLj9XY/s1600/curare.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzREqaTaxCpeXwVNWUBlpyW78Nl1gGE920PYbGx5CIrVLB6nEcN4sWDOCOc7Q9a7VT_Vfie7jmZixPG-ovaLfReAeu5WjzQAce4czV8WvcIv-weM8C-TyMEWtFi79-q-v7YyOd7VLj9XY/s200/curare.jpg" width="138" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ilustration of a plant used to make curare</td></tr>
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Throughout time humans have relied
on Nature for their basic needs for the production of food-stuffs,
shelters, clothing, means of transportation, fertilizers, flavors, fragrances and medicines.</div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: white; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curare is a mixture of plants from <st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place> and is used as a paralyzing poison by South
American indigenous people, especially for hunting purposes. Arrows or darts
shot at the prey are dipped in curare, which leads to asphyxiation owing to the
inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract. The curare from
eastern <st1:place w:st="on">Amazonia</st1:place> comes from various species of
<i>Strychnos</i> (family Loganiaceae) plants that contain chiefly quaternary
alkaloids with neuromuscular blocking action. The use of curare by Indians
makes a good example of the prelude of biotechnology using venoms. Indeed, in
this sense, the Indians can be considered the precursors of toxicologists in <st1:place w:st="on">South America</st1:place> (LIMA et al., 2010). Based on this effect,
curare started to be study by many researches. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsEAU8lJIa-QTVEmwbHLtzhybLFmAtiPz4RbFq4zkse7Hx2tTs3pE-ACX-F4KCDcDLvrbLzcyZ2FjxBGl7GwcEbC8bClvxzmHOLmDr2WUr8OZ6A2y6uVy6rcAKxQ8XOkGJbxB9a7JzWwo/s1600/curare_po.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsEAU8lJIa-QTVEmwbHLtzhybLFmAtiPz4RbFq4zkse7Hx2tTs3pE-ACX-F4KCDcDLvrbLzcyZ2FjxBGl7GwcEbC8bClvxzmHOLmDr2WUr8OZ6A2y6uVy6rcAKxQ8XOkGJbxB9a7JzWwo/s1600/curare_po.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Amazon indian using a narrow with curare to hunt</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Curare is an example of a
non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic
acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), one of the two types of acetylcholine
(ACh) receptors (MANALIS et al.,1977).</div>
</div>
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In the late-1930s and early 1940s, the
American pharmaceutical industry launched the first modern paralyzing
drugs based on indigenous South-American arrow-poisons, curare.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE5uKxHabHwG320Frbat2ycWUTX5uqoNRLUzbBWeczC_LKK_bGHotYUUHKm3gk8be4727cRU1a0gtJrxZRJQj1Pv-emx5NEERPlEEtYK72ZtMNBoD2piDMhRrsd4-mKPbclJ675HxH0YU/s1600/amazon_basin_map-max.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE5uKxHabHwG320Frbat2ycWUTX5uqoNRLUzbBWeczC_LKK_bGHotYUUHKm3gk8be4727cRU1a0gtJrxZRJQj1Pv-emx5NEERPlEEtYK72ZtMNBoD2piDMhRrsd4-mKPbclJ675HxH0YU/s200/amazon_basin_map-max.jpg" width="190" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Distribution map of the plant in the South America</td></tr>
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Curare never became a therapeutic drug;
instead, it became a valuable tool that facilitates medical
interventions, just as it facilitated animal experimentation. Its
entry to modern medicine took place in the early 1940s, and its most
prized application today is in surgery, where curarizing drugs
complement anesthesia by imposing an utter stillness on the patient,
leaving the body passive and pliant. Abdominal muscles relax and
yield, and involuntary movements and contractions disappear.
Classified as "surgical muscle relaxants," these modern
drugs have made surgery safer by reducing the need for dangerously
high levels of general anesthetics to achieve the same end (TRAUTMANN,
1982).</div>
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Preparation of the Curare used by Huaorani in the Yasuni.<br />
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<b>References:</b><br />
Lima, M. E., Forte-Dias L., Carlini C.
R. and Guimaraes J. A. Toxinology in Brazil: A big challenge for rich
biodiverity. Toxicon, 1084-1091, 2010.<br />
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<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
Manalis R. S. Voltage-dependent effect
of curare at the frog neuromuscular junction. Nature, 267, 1977.</div>
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
Trautmann, A. Curare can open and block ionic channels associated with cholinergic receptors. Nature, 298, 1982.</div>
</div>
</div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-25316057654725128862012-04-23T14:21:00.005-07:002012-04-25T19:21:15.052-07:00Jararaca<br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>Jararaca (<i>Bothrops jararaca</i>)</b></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsnlewwU6iVZUT89-v4HWaziMiSvxvUjL_DzjdzNGF7YTWx_qdCe2GaiI18h7fiPhurGiXslhdA_d4FsmNqPUmaQsobV4pFg1u7yinzPNYEZ696Q-T6Le6nDoGDLKWyTZZOX-wPRXvZLE/s1600/2618377680_a2008473aa.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Bothrops jararaca" border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsnlewwU6iVZUT89-v4HWaziMiSvxvUjL_DzjdzNGF7YTWx_qdCe2GaiI18h7fiPhurGiXslhdA_d4FsmNqPUmaQsobV4pFg1u7yinzPNYEZ696Q-T6Le6nDoGDLKWyTZZOX-wPRXvZLE/s200/2618377680_a2008473aa.jpg" title="" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Jararaca - <i>Bothrops jararaca</i></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The snakes from genus <i>Bothrops</i> are divided into 21 species
that have a large distribution in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Brazil</st1:place></st1:country-region>. They are responsible for
90% of accidents caused by snakes bites and their venoms have a large variety
of complex toxins that act on the hemostatic system. In a general way, these
toxins can be separated in groups based on their activity in the hemostatic
system. Therefore, there are toxins that act in the coagulation process; there
are those that act in the plaquetes and cause lesions in the vascular system
resulting in a hemorrhagic effect (ROSENFELD, 1971). Based on these facts, the <i>Bothrops</i>
venom is largely studied, especially the toxins that can have therapeutic
applications for various snake bites. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Local pain, edema, local and systemic
hemorrhages, and blood coagulation disturbances are usual symptoms
observed in accidents inflicted by <i>Bothrops</i> snakes (ROSENFELD,
1971). In fact, edema is one of the local effects of <i>Bothrops</i>
envenomation less efficiently neutralized by serum therapy (CARDOSO
et al., 1993). The rapid manifestation of edema and its modulation by
endogenous mediators decrease the efficacy of serum therapy (FRANCA
et al, 2003). Once serum therapy has a low efficacy to treat the
local edema of patients bitten by <i>Bothrops</i> snakes, other
therapies have been investigated.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVRnywj5vhcRu0mQUKuMVx6oUXUkggXkgofpH4d8w54gqbujJ2wYkiKp6Dfa3hmeijKz5ZzC21iPhUmjMGUVc3jhzYldOCv0Pn8zWJvPlydFy17A4DAf07ofvr379L76kNPV_tvGyQOhY/s1600/lesao.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Damage due to a jararaca bitten" border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVRnywj5vhcRu0mQUKuMVx6oUXUkggXkgofpH4d8w54gqbujJ2wYkiKp6Dfa3hmeijKz5ZzC21iPhUmjMGUVc3jhzYldOCv0Pn8zWJvPlydFy17A4DAf07ofvr379L76kNPV_tvGyQOhY/s320/lesao.jpg" title="Accident with Jararaca" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Damage of Jararaca bitten</td></tr>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Myotoxins and metalloproteinases
present in <i>Bothrops</i> venoms can induce liberation of endogenous
inflammatory mediators from affected tissues (TEIXEIRA et al., 2003;
BJARNASON and FOX, 1994). Thus, associating anti-inflammatory drugs,
such as dexamethasone or indomethacin, with antivenom should be a
rational alternative to treat the local reaction provoked by <i>Bothrops</i>
venoms. Studying this idea, many tests were made to get into the
conclusion that the efficiency of serum therapy was improved when
antivenom was administered in combination with dexamethasone or
indomethacin (ARAUJO et al., 2007). Preliminary results point out to
the efficacy of treatment of patients accidentally envenomed by
<i>Bothrops</i> snakes with an association of dexamethasone and
serum, especially for reducing edema in the first day after
envenomation (SUSAKI et al., 2005).</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicqRUSUvqVYnhKJyPfpdDMh_ggLTF3kXAs4b2MkjCu0vCtEQ0juHHf09cp1haWdabRP-q2hyiuJ6trQpsNBNs1xWmsLRTt3FEEpfIs6fh5d56-HIcvLW7Xz-jqqC49PTgjg66y3z7Fo4c/s1600/gengivorragia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicqRUSUvqVYnhKJyPfpdDMh_ggLTF3kXAs4b2MkjCu0vCtEQ0juHHf09cp1haWdabRP-q2hyiuJ6trQpsNBNs1xWmsLRTt3FEEpfIs6fh5d56-HIcvLW7Xz-jqqC49PTgjg66y3z7Fo4c/s320/gengivorragia.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Oral bleeding due to the toxic effect of Jararaca venom</td></tr>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Below are some important substances contained in the <i>Bothrops</i> venom that act in
the coagulation system:</span></div>
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<b>Trombin-like:</b> serinoproteases
that convert fibrinogen into fibrin non-stable. This makes with the
clots be not stable.</div>
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<b>Pro-coagulant:</b> serinoproteases
that activate the coagulate cascade. The most important are: <b>Factor
X activator</b>, that convert factor X into Xa; <b>Protrombim
activator,</b> that converts protrombin into trombones independently
of phospholipids and factor Va and Trombocitin, activate
factors V, VIII and XIII.</div>
</div>
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<b>Anticoagulants:</b> the most
important are: <b>Protein C activator</b>, the protein C activation
leads to the inhibition of factors Va and VIIIa; <b>Botrojaracin</b>,
trombone inhibitor; <b>Botrocetins</b>, inhibitors of factor Xa, IX
and X and <b>Jararafibrases</b>, fibrin and fibrinogen degradation.</div>
</div>
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<b>Pro-aggregating platelets:</b>
proteases that activate platelets due to the secretion of ADP.</div>
</div>
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<b>Anti-aggregating platelets:</b>
prevents that the platelets binds in the surface of the damaged
tissue, blocking the integrins.
</div>
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<b>Metaloproteases:</b> enzymes that
degrade many kinds of protein and can cause hemorrhage.</div>
</div>
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</div>
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>Myotoxic Phospholipases:
</b>activites the phospholipase A.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><div style="margin-bottom: 0in;">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaFymk7UwXnUERaAcegHOW2PktE71zfF3Vk3OfclfTUghNLl5_YoPBwOVrNqbvQToQfLMYwgn0qqcPMH1v6IbkPKSUHCTIuWiNWfrcgHhz2FT_AeIQi2SYftxwkpfmrBpIOUeWFRTXCv8/s1600/Imagem13.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: justify;"><img alt="Damage after 24 hours of the bitten" border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaFymk7UwXnUERaAcegHOW2PktE71zfF3Vk3OfclfTUghNLl5_YoPBwOVrNqbvQToQfLMYwgn0qqcPMH1v6IbkPKSUHCTIuWiNWfrcgHhz2FT_AeIQi2SYftxwkpfmrBpIOUeWFRTXCv8/s200/Imagem13.jpg" title="Damage after 24 hours " width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tissue damage after 24h from the bit </td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: white;">Studies indicating how <i>Bothrops</i> venom affects the offspring
were developed in mice. As a result of envenomation the researchers observed
that the offspring presented a high incidence of skeletal anomalies such as
vertebrae anomalies, sternebrae anomalies and incomplete skull ossification
(BERNARDI et al., 2011).<span style="font-size: 9pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWyO95qJVq5auyTQK4lVEfG-BEwA5oM_ZXKhwcH1fSh3R563qZzFQDvvbO2fPe-ADo9gm1by4OPrhO4OmqLn8xx3E2_kwaKG60JbC2iiLEX1pkH_Z9MOQVuhthHkDfTnuDins4ZB_Myg/s1600/jararaca.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="221" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWyO95qJVq5auyTQK4lVEfG-BEwA5oM_ZXKhwcH1fSh3R563qZzFQDvvbO2fPe-ADo9gm1by4OPrhO4OmqLn8xx3E2_kwaKG60JbC2iiLEX1pkH_Z9MOQVuhthHkDfTnuDins4ZB_Myg/s320/jararaca.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Bothrops jarara</i></td></tr>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: black; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: white; line-height: 115%;">Other kinds of studies that
have being developed utilizing the <i>Bothrops</i> venom are those that use the
toxins for medical treatments, such the drug Captopril first developed from the
jararaca venoms to treat hypertension. Pyroglutamyl proline-rich oligopeptides,
present in the venom of the pit viper <i>Bothrop</i>s <i>jararaca</i> (Bj-PROs),
are the first described naturally occurring inhibitors of the angio- tensin
I-converting enzyme (ACE), which is a new class of therapeutic agents for the
treatment of hypertension (SMITH and VANE, 2003). Studies about the Bj-PRO-10c,
a oligopeptide from <i>Bothrops jararaca</i>, has shown that this oligopeptide
evoked changes in arterial blood pressure that were followed by a significant
reduction of heart rate (FERREIRA et al, 1970a and 1970b). Taking the results
presented in the literature, the mechanism of action of Bj-PRO-10c appears to provide evidence that Bj-PRO-10c
induces transient increases of free intracellular calcium concentration in
neuronal cells through a mechanism by activation of a yet unknown Gi/o-protein coupled
receptor and promotes release of neurotransmitters in neuronal cells, namely
GABA and glutamate, which may contribute to central cardiovascular effects
exerted by Bj-PRO-10c (IANZER et al., 2007; LAMEU et al., 2010).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: white; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Botrhops jararaca</i> attack </div>
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<b>References:</b><br />
Araujo, S. D., Souza A., Nunes, F.P.B.
and Goncalves, L.R.C. Effect of dexamethasone associated with serum
theraphy on treatment of <i>Bothrops jararaca</i> venom-induced paw
edema in mice. Inflamm. Res. 56, 2007.<br />
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Bernardi, M. M., Kirsten, T. B., Manetta, P. R., Harb,
S.F., Macrini D.J. And Cury, Y. Maternal exposure to Bothrops
jararaca snake venom: effects in mice offsprings. J Health Sci Inst.
2011.</div>
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Bjarnason JB, Fox JW. Hemorrhagic metalloproteinases from snake venoms. Pharmacol. Ther. 1994. </div>
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Cardoso JL, Fan HW, França FO, Jorge
MT, Leite RP, Nishioka SA et al. Rando- mized comparative trial of
three antivenoms in the treatment of envenoming by lance-headed
vipers (Bothrops Jararaca) in São Paulo. Q J Med., 86, 1993.<br />
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Ferreira SH, Greene LH, Alabaster VA,
Bakhle YS, Vane JR. Activity of various fractions of bradykinin
potentiating factor against angiotensin I converting enzyme. Nature,
1970.
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Ferreira SH, Bartelt DC, Greene LJ.
Isolation of bradykinin-potentiating peptides from <i>Bothrops
jararaca</i> venom. Biochemistry, 1970.</div>
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
França FOS, Málaque CMS. Acidente
botrópico. In: Cardoso JLC, França FO, Fan HW, Málaque CMS,
Haddad Jr V (eds.), Animais Peçonhentos no Brasil: Biologia,
clínica e terapêutica dos aciden- tes. São Paulo: Sarvier,
2003.</div>
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Ianzer D, Santos RA, Etelvino GM,
Xavier CH, de Almeida Santos J, Mendes EP, Machado LT, Prezoto BC,
Dive V, de Camargo AC. Do the cardiovascular effects of
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) I involve ACE-independent
mechanisms? New insights from proline-rich peptides of <i>Bothrops
jararaca</i>. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2007. </div>
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Lameu, C., Hayashi, M. A., Guerreiro,
J. R., Oliveira, E. F., Lebrun, I., Pontieri, V., Morais, K. L. P.,
Camargo, A. C. M. and Ulrich H. The Central Nervous System as Target
for Antihypertensive Actions of a Proline-rich Peptide from <i>Bothrops
jararaca</i> Venom. Cytrometry Part A, 2010.</div>
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Rosenfeld G. Symptomathology, pathology and treatment of snakes bites in South America. In: Bucherl W, Buckley E,Editors. Venomous animals and their venoms. New York: Academic Press; 1971.<br />
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Smith CG, Vane JR. The discovery of
captopril. FASEB J, 2003.</div>
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</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Susaki TT, Fan HW, Málaque CMS,
Medeiros CR, Cardoso JLC, Ferrari RA et al. Effect of dexamethasone
therapy on local edema after <i>Bothrops</i> accidents. Mem.
Instituto Butantan 2005.</div>
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<div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
Teixeira CFP, Landucci ECT, Antunes E,
Chacur M, Cury Y. In- flammatory effects of snake venom myotoxic
phospholipase A2. Toxicon, 2003.</div>
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<br />Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-8656486830703666632012-04-22T23:44:00.005-07:002012-04-25T19:09:39.468-07:00Brown Spider<br />
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<b><i>Loxosceles sp</i></b> <b>(Brown Spider)</b></div>
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Venomous animals use their venom as tools for defense or predation. These venoms are complex mixtures, mainly enriched of proteic toxins or peptides with several, and different, biological activities. In general, spider venom is rich in biologically active molecules that are useful in experimental protocols for pharmacology, biochemistry, cell biology and immunology, as well as putative tools for biotechnology and industries (CHAIM et al, 2011).</div>
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The spiders <i>Loxosceles intermedia</i> (Li), <i>Loxosceles laeta</i> and <i>Loxosceles gaucho</i> belong to a group of arachnids (known as “brown spiders”), which are found in the South and South-East of Brazil and are responsible for most of the accidents by this genus (MOURA et al, 2011). Loxosceles spider bites have become an increasing public health problem in Brazil (ARAUJO et al, 2003).</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr6U2t8-cRhym48502i4RC91Dh_9huaHuCrYKOSlwad1vruPBi08qGhkKYvETkVqmjEP9rtTs6RagQMSQ0tBEWM4-cWp1NdIF-Ry1PEQh2dnTOBwK4m31zVMnU7ICFidvAkZCumvzwLiY/s1600/aranha_loxosceles_gaucho1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr6U2t8-cRhym48502i4RC91Dh_9huaHuCrYKOSlwad1vruPBi08qGhkKYvETkVqmjEP9rtTs6RagQMSQ0tBEWM4-cWp1NdIF-Ry1PEQh2dnTOBwK4m31zVMnU7ICFidvAkZCumvzwLiY/s200/aranha_loxosceles_gaucho1.jpg" width="188" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Loxosceles gaucho</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The color of spiders of this genus ranges from a fawn to dark brown. The brown spiders are sedentary, non-aggressive, have nocturnal habits and prefer to inhabit dark areas. In human habitats, brown spiders are often found behind furniture, pictures and associated with clothes (CARDOSO, 1997; CHAIM et al, 2011).</div>
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Loxoscelism and dermonecrotic arachnidism are two terms used to describe the cutaneous lesions and various clinical manifestations following bites by members of the <i>Loxosceles</i> genus. Systemic effects, such as thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation and renal failure, have also been reported. Indeed, the crude venom from <i>Loxosceles</i> spiders can degrade the extracellular matrix and induce endogenous responses, such as platelet aggregation, hemolysis, nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity (CHAIM et al, 2011; MOURA et al, 2011).</div>
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<b>The <i>Loxosceles </i>Venoms</b></div>
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The venom of <i>Loxosceles </i>spiders is a complex mixture of protein and peptide toxins with a molecular mass profile ranging from 1 to 40 kDa. To date, several molecules in the <i>Loxosceles </i>spider crude venoms have been described, including alkaline phosphatase, 5‘-ribonucleotide phosphohydrolase, sulfated nucleosides, hyaluronidase , fosfolipases-D, metalloproteases, serine proteases and insecticide toxins (CHAIM et al, 2011).</div>
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A group of toxins from the Sphingomyelinases D (SMases D) or dermonecrotic factor (DNF) family have been characterized as responsible for most of the toxic effects of <i>Loxosceles</i> spider venoms. The venom is classically described as having a hemolytic action on red blood cells. This effect is calcium and complement-dependent but antibody-independent, and hemolysis is induced by native and recombinant dermonecrotic toxins (phospholipase-D).</div>
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The exact mechanism of action of the venom is not yet fully understood, thus hindering the development of effective medical treatments for loxoscelism (ARAUJO et al, 2003).</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA2_u0BCLXmiMuGvl7S-aLfg-YV1R8xa65SF7IDTBGGBtejO5w-CpUqdYMS5AHWsmcRSHjktfuNPxplraIJt0z5SRSxIFZkjd84GBo0QxoM7WAZzfoJGpLCzRuvqmdWZgLlRNmKAOuDJg/s1600/images-1.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA2_u0BCLXmiMuGvl7S-aLfg-YV1R8xa65SF7IDTBGGBtejO5w-CpUqdYMS5AHWsmcRSHjktfuNPxplraIJt0z5SRSxIFZkjd84GBo0QxoM7WAZzfoJGpLCzRuvqmdWZgLlRNmKAOuDJg/s200/images-1.jpeg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Damage after 12h from the accident with <i>Loxosceles</i></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbSvDxcWMnocd20R2ebPLgnJFHfD6vi2SgpVmlvhxShAg_FNACEGmW3s5BRyjIygyG2B5NHzznNTs7-G0W6Itk63Z8B0VxqbbE1vdMEhaHLVlh53BHCl9JegmETGEgj1jlt102YzJeOwI/s1600/day6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbSvDxcWMnocd20R2ebPLgnJFHfD6vi2SgpVmlvhxShAg_FNACEGmW3s5BRyjIygyG2B5NHzznNTs7-G0W6Itk63Z8B0VxqbbE1vdMEhaHLVlh53BHCl9JegmETGEgj1jlt102YzJeOwI/s200/day6.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Damage after 30h from the accident</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6vyhtAe1m1C4LjOxZgmIMKaga3XfgDs7xOrHWymY1j9jpW3NS6tpYBg3nQHcmZ7aCoS5ooKMMEpHYKcqSgxgroc1VUJ0L3BWKYL3zd3UivVdDK1jSBjv7rpPnBs8nNqGdP-snCzeppRU/s1600/brown_recluse_spider_bite_Day10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6vyhtAe1m1C4LjOxZgmIMKaga3XfgDs7xOrHWymY1j9jpW3NS6tpYBg3nQHcmZ7aCoS5ooKMMEpHYKcqSgxgroc1VUJ0L3BWKYL3zd3UivVdDK1jSBjv7rpPnBs8nNqGdP-snCzeppRU/s200/brown_recluse_spider_bite_Day10.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Damage after 60h </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12px;"><b>Biotechnological applications of brown spider venom toxins</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; text-align: justify;">The first biotechnological application of brown spider venom constituents is the product ARACHnase. ARACHnase is a biotechnological product usefulness like a positive control for lupus anticoagulant testing (SENFF-RIBEIRO et al, 2008).</span><br />
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Recombinant toxins could be useful for biotechnology as positive controls for hemolytic assays as well as for analysis of the complement system and to study new molecular mechanisms involved in such events (SENFF-RIBEIRO et al, 2008).</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIOcUAjL0aoPQHC-mCx8yxda-NZB02s6SI2iWOOsquZOVr0yrMFSeyShjn-uElyIRsHQ7RYCASmstkNotXDVKO6CQAw2htdVU-wzRxiZykTPqMyDhxcOD5vTTlSqaTOsOEqVbQIIiYAhc/s1600/200px-LoxoscelesGaucho.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIOcUAjL0aoPQHC-mCx8yxda-NZB02s6SI2iWOOsquZOVr0yrMFSeyShjn-uElyIRsHQ7RYCASmstkNotXDVKO6CQAw2htdVU-wzRxiZykTPqMyDhxcOD5vTTlSqaTOsOEqVbQIIiYAhc/s1600/200px-LoxoscelesGaucho.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Loxosceles gaucho</i></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
<span lang="EN-US">LPA receptors are potential targets
for <em>Loxosceles</em> envenomation treatment. The possibilities for
biotechnological applications in this area are enormous. Recombinant
dermonecrotic <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0cm; padding-left: 0cm; padding-right: 0cm; padding-top: 0cm;">toxins</span> could be used as reagents to establish a new model
to study the inflammatory response, as positive inducers of the inflammatory
response and edema (CHAIM et al, 2011;
SENFF-RIBEIRO et al</span><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073497500700136X#aff1#aff1" title="Affiliation: a"></a><span lang="EN-US">,
2008). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-style: normal;">Several toxins from different sources have been studied as potential insecticidal bioactives with great biotechnological possible applications. Senff-Ribeiro et al (2008) investigated the presence of insecticide toxin in the venom of </span><i>L. intermedia</i> against <i>Spodoptera frugiperda</i>, an insect that has caused decreased corn production of Brazil. Three new potential insecticide toxins LiTx1, LiTx2 and LiTx3 were identified containing peptides that were active against <i>Spodoptera frugiperda</i>. These venom-derived products open a source of insecticide toxins that could be used as substitutes for chemical defensives and lead to a decrease in environmental problems.</div>
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Brown spider venom has the presence of hyaluronidases, that are known to be involved in physiological and pathological processes ranging from fertilization to aging. Hyaluronidase-mediated degradation of hyaluronic acid (HA) increases the permeability of connective tissues and decreases the viscosity of body fluids and is also involved in bacterial pathogenesis, the spread of toxins and venoms, fertilization and cancer progression. Inhibition of HA degradation, therefore, may be crucial in reducing disease progression and the spread of venom/toxins and bacterial pathogens. Other possible applications are anti-tumor and, possibly, antibacterial and antivenom activities (<span lang="EN-US">SENFF-RIBEIRO et al</span><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073497500700136X#aff1#aff1" title="Affiliation: a"></a><span lang="EN-US">, 2008). </span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9pt;">Future
perspectives</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9pt;"><u4:p></u4:p><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9pt;">Research
on the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Loxosceles</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>toxins has gained great attention. In
the last five years, using molecular biology techniques, scientists have
obtained different recombinant toxins and enough material to bring deeper
insight into the molecular action of these toxins. <u4:p></u4:p><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9pt;">Recombinant toxins have been expressed in bacteria, simple organisms that are easy to manipulate and cheap to work with (CHAIM et al, 2011).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 9pt;">The use of combinatorial data from proteomic and molecular biology techniques, such as mass spectrometry, transcriptome analysis and cDNA library constructions, will open possibilities for the discovery of novel toxins in complex venoms </span>(CHAIM et al, 2011).</div>
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<b>References:</b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Araujo, S. C. et al.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(2003). Protection against
dermonecrotic and lethal activities of Loxosceles intermedia spider venom by
immunization with a fused recombinant protein. </span>Toxicon
41, 261–267.<u1:p></u1:p><o:p></o:p></div>
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Cardoso, J. L. C.; Wen, F. H. (1997). Doenças infecciosas e parasitárias: Enfoque Amazonico. Cejup: UEPA: Instituto Evandro Chagas, 3-7.</div>
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Chaim, O. M. et al (2011). Brown Spider (<i>Loxosceles</i> genus) Venom Toxins: Tools for Biological Purpuses. Toxins, 3, 309-344.</div>
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Moura, J. et al (2011). Protection against the toxic effects of <i>Loxosceles intermedia</i> spider venom elicited by mimotope peptides. Vaccine, vol. 29, issue 45, 7992-8001.</div>
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Senff-Ribeiro, A. et al (2008). Biotechnological applications of brown spider <span style="line-height: 10.5pt;">(</span><i style="line-height: 10.5pt;">Loxosceles</i><span style="line-height: 10.5pt;"> </span><span style="line-height: 10.5pt;">genus)</span><span style="line-height: 10.5pt;"> venon toxins. Biotechnology Advances, vol. 26, issue 3, 210-218.</span></div>
</div>Brazilhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10364785160644303764noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-764805866058066359.post-64435454441262124982012-04-22T22:53:00.000-07:002012-04-24T17:29:35.203-07:00The Frog Vaccine<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b><b>“The frog vaccine” (<i>Phyllomedusa bicolor</i>) </b></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The anuran skin displays great
morphofunctional diversity adapted to a number of adverse factors present in
the species habitat environment. (CALDERON, 2010).</span><span lang="EN-US"> The skin of the neotropical and South American
frogs contains large amounts of a wide range of biologically active peptides
that are either identical or highly homologous to hormones or neurotransmitters
of the nervous system and diffuse endocrine system of the higher vertebrates (LACOMBE
et al, 2000).</span></div>
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<b>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRl0_3Zc5ee4yTl_MK43Ybxt1Ah_Tw8xvA_k3kUyN4B8ypjp_M1H3BcA39ZInwYi2x3Cxxbmo9sg8YdsUtb-yV7x0ewR-w4HZHOXqjZ3m-TMkc1mu21Z-jCAhxLlHK2KnOVpvzCvBKBcU/s1600/2556.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRl0_3Zc5ee4yTl_MK43Ybxt1Ah_Tw8xvA_k3kUyN4B8ypjp_M1H3BcA39ZInwYi2x3Cxxbmo9sg8YdsUtb-yV7x0ewR-w4HZHOXqjZ3m-TMkc1mu21Z-jCAhxLlHK2KnOVpvzCvBKBcU/s320/2556.jpeg" width="255" /></a><span lang="EN-US">Ultrastructural characterization of the Phyllomedusa species skin
demonstrated that the profile of skin glands are composed by lipid, mucous, and
serous glands that lie deep in the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue (LACOMBE et al.
2000; CALDERON et al., 2010). These glands produce a wide variety of noxious or
toxic substances with various pharmacological effects on microorganisms,
vertebrate, and invertebrate species (LACOMBE et al. 2000). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span lang="EN-US">Some
indigenous people in southwestern <st1:place w:st="on">Amazonia</st1:place> use
these secretions from <i>P. bicolor </i>for medicinal purposes. </span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN">Indians</span></span><span lang="EN"> <span class="hps">of the language</span>
“Pano” <span class="hps">on the border between</span> <st1:country-region w:st="on"><span class="hps">Brazil</span></st1:country-region><span class="hps"> and <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Peru</st1:place></st1:country-region></span> <span class="hps">are the ones who</span> <span class="hps">originally</span> <span class="hps">used</span> <span class="hps">this vaccine</span>. <span class="hps">In <st1:place w:st="on">Acre</st1:place></span>, <span class="hps">the Katukina Indians</span> <span class="hps">call these</span> <span class="hps">frogs</span> <span class="hpsatn">of
"</span>Kampo" or <span class="hpsatn">"</span>Kambô" and <span class="hps">apply its secretions to remove</span> <span class="hpsatn">the "</span>panema"
<span class="hps">(a kind</span> <span class="hps">of weakness or</span> <span class="hps">bad luck)</span>, giving more <span class="hps">force</span> <span class="hps">to hunters</span>. <span class="hps">While Indians</span> <span class="hps">use the</span> <span class="hps">"frog vaccine</span>" <span class="hps">to ward off</span> <span class="hpsatn">"</span>panema" and <span class="hps">various ailments</span>,
making a <span class="hps">ritual with</span> <span class="hps">spiritual meaning</span>,
<span class="hps">non-Indian</span> <span class="hps">users</span> <span class="hps">tried</span>
<span class="hps">this treatment</span> <span class="hps">for some</span> <span class="hps">specific problems</span> <span class="hps">(gastritis</span>,
rheumatism, diabetes, allergies, <span class="hps">etc</span>.) and <span class="hps">curiosity (BERNARDE; SANTOS, 2009; DALY, 1992).</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="EN">The method of application</span></span><span lang="EN"> <span class="hps">of the secretion of</span>
<span class="hps">Phyllomedusa</span> <span class="hps">bicolor</span> <span class="hps">in humans</span> <span class="hps">is known as</span> <span class="hps">"frog
vaccine</span>", <span class="hps">"frog injection</span>" or <span class="hpsatn">"</span>Kambô" <span class="hps">(BERNARDE; <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">SANTOS</st1:place></st1:city>, 2009).</span></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The skin
secretion is mixed with saliva and introduced into a line of fresh burns on the
arms or chest. This induces within minutes violent illness, including rapid
pulse, incontinence and vomiting, after which the recipient lapses into a state
of listlessness and, finally, into a state perhaps to be described as euphoric;
he later claims to be a better hunter, with improved stamina and keener senses </span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN">(BERNARDE; SANTOS, 2009;
DALY, 1992).</span></span><span lang="EN"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The
intensity of human reactions to frog secretion is doubtless dose-dependent. The
period of intense illness (<1 hr) is followed by a state of listlessness and
sleep lasting from one to several days (DALY, 1992).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<object width="320" height="266" class="BLOGGER-youtube-video" classid="clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000" codebase="http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0" data-thumbnail-src="http://0.gvt0.com/vi/STg_UoouMCA/0.jpg"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/STg_UoouMCA&fs=1&source=uds" />
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Phyllomedusa skin peptides<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Phyllomedusa
skin peptides include: dermaseptin, dermatoxin,
distinctin, phylloseptin, phylloxin, plasticin and skin polypeptide YY.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">These peptides are synthesized as prepropeptides that are processed into
mature peptides after removal of the peptide signal and the acidic propiece.
These are then stored in the granules (CALDERON et al., 2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ9Sn0wCBR_5bVDZJRchvCf_q7rG-Bdqp_sW3lLKHtdolyFpd29x9cBR5ATkV0umYe8TxLeoVlXAvPSwWGKBaFObVB55VaDBrx9BcRU28MVPjp23Oyqer09__pAYBVO_B50tfA2gYuEfI/s1600/images.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ9Sn0wCBR_5bVDZJRchvCf_q7rG-Bdqp_sW3lLKHtdolyFpd29x9cBR5ATkV0umYe8TxLeoVlXAvPSwWGKBaFObVB55VaDBrx9BcRU28MVPjp23Oyqer09__pAYBVO_B50tfA2gYuEfI/s1600/images.jpeg" /></a><span lang="EN-US">The
Phyllomedusa skin peptides are grouped in to three main groups according to
their ‘‘primary’’ activity: antimicrobial peptides (AMPs); smooth muscle active
peptides; and nervous system active peptides. The first group acts as a skin
anti-infective passive defense barrier, the second and the third groups cause
the disruption of the predator homeostasis balance (CALDERON
et al., 2010). </span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN">Also, s</span></span><span lang="EN-US">kin
extracts from this species have been previously studied and are known to contain
a variety of vasoactive peptides, including high levels of phyllocaerulein,
phyllokinin, and phyllomedusin and moderate levels of sauvagine. (DALY, 1992).</span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The biological significance of such a complex mixture of antibiotic
peptides with different specificity and potency in Phyllomedusa skin is
possibly related to a greater protection against a wide range of potential
invaders at a minimum metabolic cost, e.g., dermaseptins exhibit synergy of
action upon combination with other antibiotic molecules or AMPs, resulting in a
100-fold increase in antibiotic activity (CALDERON et al., 2010). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The ensuing effects depend on the antimicrobial peptide and the severity
of the damage, and usually include dissipation of ionic gradients across the
PM, leakage of nutrients and/or larger cytoplasmic components, and finally, a
collapse of the parasite bioenergetics and osmotic lysis (CALDERON et al.,
2010). This killing mechanism acts promptly by destroying their PM, promoting
the reduction of log orders of pathogens in a few minutes. This mechanism is
unlikely to induce antibiotic-resistance in microorganisms due to a great metabolic
change in the PM composition. Two elements seem to be relevant to the
antimicrobial action: the selectiveness, and the ability to destabilize PMs
(CALDERON et al., 2010). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>Therapeutic peptide antibiotics</b></b></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg81zHwfyc_rKUczDLmagzp_veDuunx2ETUGgw2gCeujY1Ul0j9CAbU_f4PVNKsn-U3eM0f72gYQpPwZKAYk1E_Cu_iqDjjgCgXJBEOM2r31gUYm5fwmbYN10bpIXdFtK5_DBtMVvTiafw/s1600/map_of_Phyllomedusa_bicolor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg81zHwfyc_rKUczDLmagzp_veDuunx2ETUGgw2gCeujY1Ul0j9CAbU_f4PVNKsn-U3eM0f72gYQpPwZKAYk1E_Cu_iqDjjgCgXJBEOM2r31gUYm5fwmbYN10bpIXdFtK5_DBtMVvTiafw/s320/map_of_Phyllomedusa_bicolor.jpg" title="Distribution of P. bicolor " width="320" /></a><span lang="EN-US">Many efforts have been carried out in order to use the AMPs in the
development of new infection-fighting drugs applicable to new treatments of
nosocomial infections and multidrug-resistant infections, due to the skill of
the AMPs to kill drug resistant strains by a mechanism unlikely to induce
antibiotic-resistance. The sources from the biodiversity, such as the skin of
several frogs’ species, e.g., as Phyllomedusa and other vertebrate and
invertebrate animals, plants, and microorganisms, have proved to be an inexorable
source of antimicrobial molecules, with a broad spectra of activity, in which
the AMPs have highlights in their potential therapeutical application. In order
to develop new peptide antibiotics, synthetic changed peptides might offer
significant advantages over native AMPs as therapeutical agents. Compared with
conventional antibiotics, these bacteria-killing peptides are extremely rapid
and attack multiple bacterial cellular targets. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Even with the expected advantages in the use of AMPs as antibiotics,
several impediments to therapeutic peptides arise. The main problems at the
present moment are the cost of manufacturing peptides, which is economically
unfeasible for the amounts of AMPs needed compared to other antibiotics,
preventing the widespread clinical use of AMPs as a common antibiotic, and the
shortage of studies thoroughly examining systemic peptide pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic issues,
including peptide aggregation problems, the in vivo halflife of peptides (and
particularly their susceptibility to mammalian proteases), and the required
dosing frequency. Due to the specific characteristics of the AMPs, that
differentiate them from other antibiotics, the development of new strategies
for the therapeutic use of AMPs in medicine are necessary in order to reduce
the amount of AMPs necessary to promote the therapeutic infection suppression
effect, including the addition of striking affinity to specific targets, efficiency
at very low concentrations and negligible toxicity. In this way, nanotechnology
has become an efficient and viable alternative to promote the therapeutic
application of AMPs. It is expected that in the forthcoming years
nanotechnology will promote the emergence of new products for control and
prevention of multidrug-resistance microbe infection arising from the identification
and analysis of AMPs from South American frog biodiversity (CALDERON et al.,
2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>References:</b> </b></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Bernarde, P. S.; Santos, R. A. (</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">September-2009) </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Medicinal use of secretions (“the frog vaccine”) from the kambô frog (</span><i style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Phyllomedusa bicolor</i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">) by non-indigenous peoples in Rondônia, Brazil. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Biotemas</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">, 22 (3): 213-220.</span></div>
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Calderon L. A. et al. (2010) Antimicrobial peptides from Phyllomedusa frogs: from biomolecular diversity to potential nanotechnologic medical applications. Springer-Verlag, 3, 120-141.</div>
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Daly, J. W. (November 1992) Frog secretions and hunting magic in the upper Amazon: Identification of a peptide that interacts with an adenosine receptor. Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 89, pp. 10960-10963.</div>
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